自考“英语语言学”资料(9)
1.81.What is a grapheme?What is orthography?
(1)A“grapheme”is the minimal constructive unit in the writing system of a language.The English grapheme A is represented by A,α,a etc.
(2)Orthography means correct spelling,spelling rules or attempts to improve spelling.
1.82.What is reference?
“Reference”,as far as writing is concerned,means that in a sound writing system the graphemes and the phonemes are expected to build up and to keep up co-reference.For instance,the Reference of the English grapheme B generally is“b”and that of the grapheme X is“ks”.The problem with reference is that more than one phoneme can be represented by one single letter or grapheme.The grapheme O,for example,can represent its its different corresponding phonemes as in:so [],money [],together [],sob [].
For reference used in the sense of“sense”or“meaning”,place refer back to 1.64.
1.83.What is affixation,conversion and compounding?
(1)“Affixation”is the morphological process whereby grammatical of lexical information is added to the base (root or stem).It has been the oldest and the most productive word-formation method in the English language and some other European languages.“Prefixation”means addition of a prefix to make a new word,while“suffixation”means adding a suffix to a word.The word“unfaithful”is result of both prefixation and suffixation.
(2)“Conversion”(called sometimes“full conversion”) is a word-formation process by which a word is altered from one part of speech into another without the addition (or deletion) of any morpheme.“Partial conversion”is also alteration when a word of one word-class appears in a function which is characteristic of another word-class,e.g.,“ the wealthy”(=wealthy people)。
(3)“Compounding”is so complex a word-formation process as far as English is concerned that there is no formal criterion that can be used for the definition of it,though it may mean simply that two words or more come together used as one lexical item,like“dustbin”。
1.84.What is blending,abbreviation and back formation?
(1)“Blending”is a relatively complex form of compounding in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root,or by joining the initial parts of the two roots,e.g.,smog→smoke+fog,boatel→boat+hotel,etc.
(2)“Abbreviation”,also called in some cases“clipping”,means that a word that seems unnecessarily long is shortened,usually by clipping either the front or the back part of it,e.g.,telephone→phone,professor→prof.,etc.
Broadly speaking,abbreviation includes acronyms that are made up from the first letters of the long name of an organization,e.g.,World Bank→WB,European Economic Community→EEC,etc.Other examples of acronyms can be found with terminologies,to be read like one word,e.g.,radio detecting and ranging→radar [].Test of English as a Foreign Language→TOEFL [],etc.
(3)“Back-formation”refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by detecting an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.It is a special kind of metanalyais,combined with analogical creation (see 1.85),e.g.,editor→edit,enthusiasm→enthuse,etc.
1.85.What is analogical creation?What is borrowing?
The process of“analogical creation”,as one of the English tendencies in English word-formation,refers to the phenomenon that a new word or a new phrase is coined by analogy between a newly created one and an existing one.For example,“marathon”appeared at the First Olympic Games and by analogy modern English created such words as“telethon”,“talkthon”,etc.Analogy may create single words(e.g.,sunrise-moonrise,earthrise,etc.;earthquake-starquake,youthquake,etc.) and phrases( e.g.,environmental pollution-sound pollution,air pollution,cultural pollution,etc.)。
“Borrowing”means the English language borrowed words from foreign languages,which fall in four categories: aliens,denizens,translation-loans and semantic borrowings.
“Aliens”are foreign loans that still keep their alien shapes,i.e.,morphological and phonological features,e.g.,“elite”,“coup détat”,“coupé”,etc.(from French)。“Deniens”,also foreign words,have transformed their foreign appearance,i.e.,they have been Angolcized (or Americanized),e.g.,“get”(a Scandinavian borrowing),“theater”(a French loan),etc.“Hybrids”are also denizens,because they are words made up of two parts both from foreign soil,such as“sociology”(“socio-”from French and –logy from Greek)。
“Translation-loans”are words imported by way of translation,e.g.,“black humor”from French(“humor noir”),“found object”form French ,too (“object trouve”),etc.Finally,semantic borrowings have acquired new meaning under the influence of language or languages other than the source tongue.For example,“gift”mean“the price of a wife ”in Old English (450-1150AD),and after the semantic borrowing of the meaning of“gift or present”of the Scandinavian term“gipt”,it meant and still means“gift”in the modern sense of it.
1.86.What is assimilation,dissimilation and metathesis?
(1)“Assimilation”refers to change of a sound as the result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is called“contact”or“contiguous”assimilation.The assimitative processes at word in language could be explained by the“theory of least effort”,i.e.,in speaking we tend to exert as little effort as possible so that we do not want to vary too often places of articulation in uttering a sequence of sounds.Assimilation takes place in quick speech very often.In expressions such as“immobile”,“illegal”,etc.,the negative prefixes should be or have been“in-”etymologically.
(2)“Dissimilation”,opposite of assimilation,is the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another sound,so that the sounds become less alike than expected.As there are two[r] sounds in the Latin word“peregrines”,for instance,the first segment had to dissimilate into[l],hence the English word“pilgrim”
(3)“Metathesis”is a process involving an alteration in the sequence of sounds.Metathesis had originally been a performance error,which was overlooked and accepted by the speech community.For instance,the word“bird”was“bird”in Old English.The word“ask”used to be pronounced [ask] in Old English,as still occurs in some English dialects.
【自考“英语语言学”资料(9)】相关文章:
热点推荐:
文学
- 2016-06-28【文学】2016年自考文学概论(一)考点:文学形象的系统性
- 2016-06-28【文学】2016年自考文学概论(一)考点:具体可感性
- 2016-06-28【文学】2016年自考文学概论(一)考点:艺术概括性
- 2016-06-28【文学】2016年自考文学概论(一)考点:审美理想性
- 2016-06-28【文学】2016年自考文学概论(一)考点:审美属性
- 2016-06-28【文学】2016年自考文学概论(一)考点:西方典型论发展的三阶段
- 2016-06-28【文学】2016年自考文学概论(一)考点:典型论在现代中国的发展
- 2016-06-28【文学】2016年自考文学概论(一)考点:典型的特征性
其他最新资讯
- 2023-12-29【自考政策】广西自考网络助学平台新增61门课程
- 2020-12-04【免考问题】哪些证书可以免考自考相关课程?
- 2020-12-04【免考问题】自考免考有哪些条件?
- 2020-12-04【综合问题】自考本科文凭有用吗?
- 2020-12-04【综合问题】自考本科需要考多少门课?
- 2020-11-17【综合问题】江苏省高等教育自学考试网上报名常见问题及解答
- 2020-11-17【经济学】2012年自考“中国税制”笔记串讲(8)
- 2020-11-17【自考政策】全国自考办领导:未来自考将大力发展网络助学
网友关注
- 【自考政策】高等教育自学考试考试办法介绍
- 【自考政策】行家指点:三种办法识别盗版教材
- 【自考政策】正保教育集团成为中国高等教育学会会员
- 【自考政策】自考公共课时事资料:11月国内国际大事记
- 【自考政策】教育部四六级成绩不免考自考外语
- 【自考政策】全国高等教育自学考试两会议在厦门举行
- 【自考政策】自考公共课时事资料:7月国内国际大事记
- 【自考政策】自考生英语充电可参加PETS和BEC
网友关注视频
- 沪教版牛津小学英语(深圳用) 五年级下册 Unit 12
- 冀教版小学数学二年级下册第二单元《有余数除法的竖式计算》
- 外研版英语七年级下册module3 unit2第二课时
- 苏科版数学七年级下册7.2《探索平行线的性质》
- 冀教版小学英语五年级下册lesson2教学视频(2)
- 沪教版牛津小学英语(深圳用) 四年级下册 Unit 2
- 冀教版小学数学二年级下册第二周第2课时《我们的测量》宝丰街小学庞志荣
- 30.3 由不共线三点的坐标确定二次函数_第一课时(市一等奖)(冀教版九年级下册)_T144342